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Appeal to emotion or argumentum ad passiones is a logical fallacy characterized by the manipulation of the recipient's emotions in order to win an argument, especially in the absence of factual evidence. This kind of appeal to emotion is a type of red herring and encompasses several logical fallacies, including appeal to consequences, appeal to fear, appeal to flattery, appeal to pity, appeal to ridicule, appeal to spite, and wishful thinking. Instead of facts, persuasive language is used to develop the foundation of an appeal to emotion-based argument. Thus, the validity of the premises that establish such an argument does not prove to be verifiable.〔http://mcckc.edu/longview/ctac/fallacy.htm〕 Appeals to emotion are intended to draw visceral feelings from the acquirer of the information. And in turn, the acquirer of the information is intended to be convinced that the statements that were presented in the fallacious argument are true; solely on the basis that the statements may induce emotional stimulation such as fear, pity and joy. Though these emotions may be provoked by an appeal to emotion fallacy, effectively winning the argument, substantial proof of the argument is not offered, and the argument's premises remain invalid.〔Kimball, Robert H. “A Plea for Pity.” Philosophy and Rhetoric. Vol. 37, Issue 4. (2004): 301–316. Print.〕〔Wheater, Isabella “Philosophy.” Vol.79, Issue 308. (2004): 215–245. Print.〕〔Moore, Brooke N., and Kenneth Bruder. Philosophy: The Power of Ideas. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2008. Print.〕 ==In classical and historical sources == The power of emotions to influence judgment, including political attitudes, has been recognized since classical antiquity. Aristotle, in his treatise ''Rhetorica'' described emotional arousal as critical to persuasion: “The orator persuades by means of his hearers, when they are roused to emotion by his speech; for the judgments we deliver are not the same when we are influenced by joy or sorrow, love or hate”.〔Aristotle, ''Rhetorica'' I, II.5.〕〔“The Influence of Emotions on Beliefs”, Nico Frijda, Antony Manstead and Sasha Bem in ''Emotions and Beliefs'', Cambridge University Press, 2000, p.1.〕 Aristotle accordingly warned that emotions may give rise to beliefs where none existed, or change existing beliefs, and may enhance or decrease the strength with which a belief is held.〔“Beliefs through Emotions”, Nico H. Frijda and Batja Mesquita in ''Emotions and Beliefs'', N. Frijda, A. Manstead and S. Bem, ed., Cambridge University Press, 2000, p.45.〕 Seneca similarly warned that “Reason herself, to whom the reins of power have been entrusted, remains mistress only so long as she is kept apart from the passions.''.〔Seneca, ''De Ira'', I, viii.1.〕 Centuries later, French scientist and philosopher, Blaise Pascal (19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662) wrote that “People…arrive at their beliefs not on the basis of proof, but on the basis of what they find attractive.”.〔Blaise Pascal, “On the Art of Persuasion,” 1658.〕 Spinoza (1677) characterized emotions as having the power to “make the mind inclined to think one thing rather than another.” Disagreeing with Seneca that emotion was a corrupter of reason, the 18th century English philosopher George Campbell argued, instead, that emotions were allies of reason, and that they aid in the assimilation of knowledge. At the same time, Campbell warned of the malleability of emotion and the consequent risk in terms of suggestibility: ::() are not supplanters of reason, or even rivals in her sway; they are her handmaids, by whose ministry she is enabled to usher truth into the heart, and procure it to favorable reception. As handmaids, they are liable to be seduced by sophistry in the garb of reason, and sometimes are made ignorantly to lend their aid in the introduction of falsehood.〔George Campbell, 1776, cited by James Price Dillar and Anneloes Meijnders in “Persuasion and the Structure of Affect”, The Persuasion Handbook, Sage Publishing, p.309.〕 Drawing on the social psychology of his day, propaganda theorist Edward Bernays confidently asserted that “in certain cases we can effect some change in public opinion with a fair degree of accuracy by operating a certain mechanism, just as a motorist can regulate the speed of his car by manipulating the flow of gasoline.” 〔Edward Bernays, Propaganda, 1928, 2005 ed., p.72.〕 Bernays advised that to change the attitudes of the masses, a propagandist should target its “impulses, habits and emotions” 〔Edward Bernays, Propaganda, 1928, 2005 ed., p.73.〕 and by making “emotional currents” work for him.〔Edward Bernays, Propaganda, 1928, 2005 ed., p.77.〕 Indeed, some contemporary writers have attributed the popularity of the most destructive political forces in modern history—from Hitlerism to Jihadism—to the ability of their leaders to enchant (rather than convince) publics and to oppose “the heavenly ecstasies of religious fervor” to the “naked self interest” and the icy, individualistic rationalism of modern liberalism.〔Barry A. Sanders, American Avatar: The United States in the Global Imagination, (Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books, 2011), pp. 102,115.〕 Similarly, Drew Westen, professor of psychology psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Emory University, drawing on current psychiatric and psychological research to demonstrate the power of emotions to affect political cognition and preferences, has written that, “when reason and emotion collide, emotion invariably wins.” 〔Drew Westen, ''The Political Brain'', Public Affairs Books, 2007, p. 35〕 Westen, an advisor to Democratic political campaigns, believes that evolution has equipped us to process information via our emotions and that we respond to emotional cues more than to rational arguments. Accordingly, Westen believes that emotion lies at the center of effective persuasion and that appeals to emotion will always beat appeals to reason: ::A central aspect of the art of political persuasion is creating, solidifying, and activating networks that create primarily positive feelings toward your candidate or party and negative feelings toward the opponent … ::You can slog it for those few millimeters of cerebral turf that process facts, figures and policy statements. Or you can … target[] different emotional states with messages designed to maximize their appeal.〔Drew Westen, ''The Political Brain'', Public Affairs Books, 2007, pp. 85, 88〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「appeal to emotion」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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